Lamentations: Musings on staging

Lamentations springs to life when its poetic form is appreciated and respected. Poetry is performance. And this can include, perhaps especially so, staged readings or even theatrical production. Indeed, in their origins, these poems were embedded within a deeply performative oral environment.^[1]

"Look!" and "notice!" comprise a thread running through each chapter of Lamentations and across all of them: see the translation notes. And it is all about bringing vivid pictures into the mind. Visual staging seems to be not only an option, but encouraged.

In preparing this version of the text over the course of a few years various thoughts and ideas have come to mind — "I wonder how a producer/director would do that?" — bidden and unbidden, considered and random, about such aspects. Some are given here simply to spark further imagination by the potential producer/director.

Perhaps the foundational consideration is that Lamentations is both aural and visual, hence the impetus towards theatrical staging. That "visual" is not only "the mind's eye" extrapolating from the text and staging, but real, not least in seeing the alphabetic acrostic at work.

Visual

The alphabetic acrostic of the first four chapters, and its absence in the last, is an essential foundation. This works visually: seeing the passing alphabet is vital. Perhaps an obvious method is projecting the letters onto a screen. I was re-assured to discover that this is also what a forerunner did: see below. In his case (which was a university biblical studies course) he was able to use the Hebrew alphabet. In our case, where our English alphabet is used, that wouldn't work; simply use our alphabet.^[2] Of course, we have the added twist of having to omit four letters. This probably requires a programme note, perhaps supplemented by a reminder by something like using our full alphabet but greying out the omitted letters.

Some aspects of the text lend themselves to visual demonstration. For example, chapter 2 initially looks like an audio monologue (with Daughter Zion speaking only at the end). But v.13 sets up a chain of "who" questions: "to what can I liken you? / how advocate? / who could heal you?" which leads to a sweeping panorama of three initial candidates on display: prophets (14), passers-by (15) and even human enemies (16). Finally there is a fourth candidate, God himself. But he, already identified as "enemy" (5), "has done what he planned, / fulfilled his threat (17)."^[3]

Also in chapter 2 the action in the first half zooms in from the land of Judah, vv.2–5, to the city of Zion, vv.6–10, to the people there, vv.11–12.^[4]

Similarly, if the staging of chapter 3 involves some sort of scenery and props then its 'L'-acrostic lines, 28–30, lend themselves to re-visiting complaint scenes from earlier verses:^[5]

• 28: "Lonesome let him sit and in silence": cf. 2–8: the dark isolation and confinement.
• 29: "Lend he his mouth to the dust": cf. 16: "Fracturing my teeth on gravel, he ground me in dust".
• 30: "Lend he his cheek to the assailant"; take his fill of disgrace: cf. 11–14: the physical attacks and laughing-stock.

Inclusion of a wall at or towards one side of the stage could be beneficial. Walling is explicitly mentioned in 3:7 and 3:9 where it acts as a barrier to prayer.^[6] At 3:44 God metaphorically walls himself off from prayer by a cloud. At the opening of chapter 5 ("Recall, look, notice") the wall can act as a link, now communal.^[7] To a present-day audience, visual resonance with the well-known Western Wall of the Temple Mount complex then springs to mind (although more literally that might be considered anachronistic as it dates from after the time of Lamentations).

The transition from chapter 2 into and through chapter 3 has visual potential. Chapters 1 and 2 have been portraying Daughter Zion in great distress. The audience is longing for her rescue. Now chapter 3 opens with the arrival of the "strong man", announcing "I am the man": the classic set-up for the arrival of the "rescuing hero", the mighty soldier building expectations of protection.^[8] Leaving Daughter Zion on stage can heighten this. But the reality will be far different. Instead of rescue he is utterly self-absorbed; he doesn't even acknowledge her (as "Daughter People", 48, and "daughters of my city", 51) until well past the two-thirds point of the scene. And then? He immediately reverts to self-absorption, "my enemies ensared me", and continues to ignore her. He has recited that central passage about hope…yet abandons her, hopeless.

The opening of chapter 3 contrasts against Psalm 23; see the chapter introduction. Perhaps the psalm text could be projected, then step-by-step erased as those verses progress.

Also:

• The entire "look"/"notice" thread. And although at 3:1 this version was unable to incorporate the original "looked at (known, experienced) affliction", its threefold "I/me" opening seems to demand visual gesture to command an audience to look and notice.
• 4:1–8: Marked use of colour, augmented by a counter-use of dullness.
• (t.b.c.)

Characterisation and voicing

In this translation of Lamentations we resist the temptation to delve too far into what interpretation any individual stage production might bring.

A key question is how many voices are present; in other words how is casting approached? There is no clear consensus among the commentators. Clearly, in the first two chapters there are Daughter Zion and a narrator. The third chapter adds the "strong man" (ch. 3) as a third character. Lanahan (1974) then suggests a further two voices (totalling five): a "bourgeois" (rather than the earlier narrator) for ch.4 and a chorus for ch.5. This chorus is not simply the narrator, Daughter Zion, the strong man and the bourgeois; rather it has its own character, subsuming each individual persona.^[9]

Throughout the Dobbs-Allsopp (2012) commentary there are some very useful thoughts about not only characters and possible motivations and thoughts, but also groups. For example:

• In chapter 2, although Daughter Zion's speech at the end is short, just three verses 20–22, it is stinging, accusing God directly: "the terrors you summoned!" (22a). One might then imagine her turning on her heels and walking way, now narrator-like, with falling voice: "on the day of the Lord's anger…my enemy annihilated" (22b,c).^[10]
• Chapter 3 features the man/geber. There is no consensus among commentators on his identity. Possibilities include: Jeremiah, a Job-like character, an "everyman", a nobleman of the city or the narrator of the first two chapters. There are various other considerations: see the chapter introduction.
• While chapter 3 is mostly a singular soliloquy, 3:40–47 is plural. Might this be the wider population, who will appear in the following chapters? Might it be Daughter Zion, staying on stage from earlier chapters? (This might be an option if the casting is, for instance, a minimal two-hander.) Might it be regarded as inclusion of the audience, as a break from an otherwise fully on-stage performance?
• Chorus (chap.4): While chapter 4 is mostly narration, nevertheless it is about various groups of people. Then at v17 a chorus "we" speaks up.^[11] Further, within the narration, vv.6, 11 and 16 might be considered a separate narrative voice.^[12]
• Chorus (chap.5): The embryonic chorus at the end of chapter 4 sets up the full chorus of chapter 5. Verses 2–16 constitute a piling up catalogue of brief but pointed complaints from a wide cross-section of the oppressed people. They are meant to pull us, the passive audience, into the story. So rather than being traditionally staged, consider scattered actors as representatives voicing these verses from within the audience.
• (t.b.c.)

Chapters 1, 2 and 4 strongly feature a narrator. The character in chapter 1 may be seen as largely objective, reporting about what they witness. Alternatively they may be viewed as more involved: Berman (2023) uses the term "pastoral mentor". The character in chapter 4 may be seen as much more involved with the community and speaking with them.^[13] So might they be envisaged as two different people? Between them, in chapter 2, the narrator seems to undergo a change within the chapter itself. By contrast, then, might this indicate one single overall narrator, themselves changed and transformed across the three chapters?^[14]

Chiastic structures

On a variety of scales, an awareness of chiastic structure, resembling A B C B' A', is useful. Its consideration could provide a bearing on set design or other aspects of staging and production.

Across the book

There is some resonance, both thematic and linguistic, between the outermost chapters 1 and 5 and, working inwards, their neighbouring chapters 2 and 4.

• 1: Aftermath of destruction
•  2: Destruction
•   3: Despair to hope and back to despair
•  4: Destruction
• 5: Aftermath of destruction

From Assis (2009), which is admittedly rather technical, cherry-picking these approachable aspects is thoroughly recommended for exploration. For example there are some themes that appear in one chapter pair (e.g. 2 and 4) but are absent from the other pair (e.g. 1 and 5).

• 2 and 4: Famine; God's anger; enemy rejoicing; exposure of sin; responsibility of the prophets; juxtaposition of priests and prophets; king
• 1 and 5: Widowhood; comparison with past ("days of old"); weeping over desolation; feeling of pain and loss; mourning; "no rest"; loss of independence and its leading to servitude; shame and loss of dignity; economic distress

Chapters 2 and 4 are also linked by a common verb "pour", absent from other chapters. As discussed in the translation notes it seemed preferable to represent this as "disgorge" in chapter 4.

Within chapters

Topping and tailing chapter 1 as a contrast:

• 1:1: "great with people"/"great among the nations"
• 1:22: "great are my groans"

Chapter 2:

• 2:1: "angered/beclouded" verb to open
•  2:1: "in the day of his anger"
•   2:3: "cut off…every horn of Israel"
•    2:8: "Hell-bent [determined] was the Lord on destroying"
•    2:17: "The Lord has done what he planned [determined]…to destroy without pity"
•   2:17: "exalted your foes' horn"
•  2:22: "on the day of the Lord's anger"
• 2:22: "annihilated" verb to close

Chapter 3:

• 3:1: Opening self-identification: "I am the man seared…"
•  3:1–18: grief, complaint^[15]
•   3:19–24: towards hope
•    3:25–39: wisdom
•   3:40–47: hope abandoned
•  3:48–63: grief, supplication
• 3:63: Near-closing self-identification: "I am their snide-song".

Topping and tailing chapter 5 as contrasting verbs "recall" and "ignore":^[16]

• 5:1: "Recall, O Lord, what befell us"
• 5:20: "…why always ignore us?"

Some random details

• Although the opening "Alas!", Hebrew ekah, of chapters one, two and four is a word, a leading commentator describes this as opening primordial scream of "Eikhaaah!".^[17] A rather more dramatic opening than simply reciting "Alas".
• Drama, of course, thrives on contrast and tension. At several points Lamentations pulls against other biblical passages, sometimes in seemingly deliberate opposition. The introduction to chapter 4 gives two examples; perhaps more subtle is that at the opening of chapter 3. Can this be worked in? ("Your covenant promise with us was good X, but we are now in opposite state Y".)
• Within its 22 verses, the first chapter may contain a dozen or so allusions to the Egyptian captivity.^[18] That event was of crucial importance to the original audience, so would be recognised, and in a profound manner. But to a present-day western audience, while the event (Moses, "Red Sea", Exodus wanderings, etc.) might be known about, but as a relatively remote story, these deep allusions are probably entirely missed. So staging might attempt to convey something of that.
• The tape-measure is a tool for creation and construction. But in the opening section of chapter 2 God uses it (2:8) in setting about the destruction of his very own dwelling-place. "Demolition itself requires careful planning."^[19]
• 3:18: Note the double meaning, mentioned in the footnote. The text has had to lean one way; stage gesture can indicate the more accusatory edge.
• (t.b.c.)

A forerunner

Back in 1999, long before I approached any work whatsoever on Lamentations, Brian Toews of Cairn University (at the time called Philadelphia College of Bible) had already staged it with and for his students in their coursework. He used the traditional Authorised (King James) text. So, of course, no acrostics; no qinah. For the theatrically minded, his script with stage directions and his subsequent report to a conference through Asbury Seminary are worth reading:

• Toews, Brian G (1999), EKA—The Hope of Zion: An Interpretive Play from the Book of Lamentations
• Toews, Brian G (2000), Performing Scripture: Theatre as a Hermeneutical Tool

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